Brain Disease Essay - 2275 Words

What would you do if you had brain disease? The brain is the most important part of the human body. Without it, you would not be able to think, and more importantly, you would be dead. Two serious brain diseases are brain tumors and Alzheimer’s disease. A brain tumor is a massive growth of abnormal cells in the brain. There are many types of brain tumors. Some may be benign, which is noncancerous, or they may be malignant, which is cancerous (Brain Tumor). Alzheimers disease is an unstoppable brain disease that gradually damages ones memory and thinking. Eventually, the ability to do simple tasks everyday even becomes destroyed. For most people, Alzheimers disease show after the age of 60. This is known as late onset AD. Early onset is†¦show more content†¦The cortex consists of four sections, called lobes. The frontal lobe is connected to reasoning, planning, speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving. The parietal lobe is associated with balance, recognizing, a nd movement. The occipital lobe is associated with vision. The temporal lobe is connected to hearing, memory, and speech. The cortex is highly wrinkled, making the brain more convenient, as this increases the brains surface area, giving it more room for neurons. The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres- the left hemisphere, and the right hemisphere. The right hemisphere is associated with creativity, and the left one is linked with logic. A bundle of nerve fibers, known as the corpus callosum connects these hemispheres (Brain Structures and their Functions). The cerebellum, which is also known as the little brain, is similar to the cerebrum, since it also has two hemispheres and a highly folded surface. This part of the brain is linked with movement and balance. The cerebellum is assumed to be older than the cerebrum evolutionarily (Brain Structures and Their Functions). The brain stem controls basic life functions such as blood pressure, breathing, and heartbeat. Scientists say that the brain stem is the simplest part of the brain (Brain Structures and Their Functions). Dementia is the loss of intellectual processing such as thinking, reasoning,Show MoreRelatedAutism- Brain Disease572 Words   |  2 PagesAutism is the second types of brain disease. According to Scheruermann and Webber (2002), autism is a development of disorder that caused by neurological impairment affecting brain chemistry and or brain structure. Even the exact reason of the neurological impairment is not yet known, but it is mostly due to the genetic links. Nevertheless, this symptoms is well-defined, hence essential information for educational treatment been contributed. Understanding based on autistic symptomology is the bestRead MoreIs Addiction A Brain Disease?1680 Words   |  7 Pages Cognitive Addiction Addiction is a Brain Associated Disorder that Allows the Body to Become Dependent on a Substance Oliver Sutton General Psychology 150-101 Professor Shawn Matthews 30 September 2014 Oliver Sutton Professor Shawn Matthews General Psychology 150-101 30 September 2014 Is addiction a brain disease? The definition of disease is a disorder in an organism that produces specific signs/symptoms that affects a specific location and isn’t a direct result of any kind ofRead MoreAlzheimer s Disease Is A Disease Of The Brain1214 Words   |  5 PagesAlzheimer’s disease is a disease of the brain. This disease deteriorates parts of the brain and causes memory loss. Alzheimer’s disease is thought to be a disease that only older individuals develop. Forgetting can be a terrifying event in a person’s life, not to mention the life of an older individual who probably already has other health issues to worry about. This disease is not curable; however, it can be treated to a certain extent. Basically, all the treatment does is try to delay theRead MoreDrug Addiction: A Brain Controlling Disease823 Words   |  3 Pagesleft a major impact on the brains of each user. Drug addiction is a relapsing brain disease that is characterized by brain malfunction that alters the way the users think and behave. Normal balancing Mechanisms go haywire, allowing the drug to control the brain. Drug addiction has been a major concern for scientist in recent years. With research drug addiction is categorized as a neuron-disease from its large impact on the brain. Drug addiction is a complex brain disease characterized by compulsiveRead MoreDementia Is A Disease That Affects The Brain2029 Words   |  9 PagesDementia is a disease that affects the brain. The main areas it affects are your memory and the mind. It can also affect your personality and can change your way of thinking and how you are and what you are like as a person. Dementia is extremely rare in a young person or a person under the ages of 65. Throughout my essay I am going to be looking at the different types of Dementia. I will also be looking at the different causes of the disease and the early signs and symptoms that come with the differentRead MoreParkinson Disease : A Brain Disorder1109 Words   |  5 Pages Parkinson Disease By Teri Gordon BIO 202 Harrisonburg Campus â€Æ' Teri Gordon BIO 202 Kevin Chakos Harrisonburg Campus Research Paper Parkinson Disease Parkinson Disease is a brain disorder that affects movement, loss of muscle control and balance. The first symptoms usually include a tremor of the hand, foot, or leg which is often termed as a â€Å"shaky palsy.† The disease usually slowly progresses with symptoms getting more intense over many years. Some patients who develop Parkinson’s inRead MoreSchizophreni A Chronic, Severe, And Disabling Brain Disease1224 Words   |  5 PagesAlexandra Heck Abnormal Psychology Kristen Shirley 11 December 2016 Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a chronic, severe, and disabling brain disease. This disease can develop at any moment in a lifetime to approximately one percent of the population. Although schizophrenia is not subject to a specific gender, men typically develop this disease earlier than women. The symptoms of schizophrenia vary from person to person but generally include; hearing internal voices not heard by others, or believingRead MoreAlzheimer s Disease And Its Effects On The Brain1132 Words   |  5 Pages Last year my maternal Aunt Kate passed away. She had been diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) about eight years earlier. My maternal grandmother also had been diagnosed with AD before her death. Later this month I will accompany my 77-year-old mother to her neurologist appointment. While she has not been diagnosed with AD, she has been prescribed Donepezil (Aricept), one of the newer drugs that are thought to reduce the decline in memory in patients that have or might be d eveloping dementiaRead MoreParkinson s Disease Affects The Brain877 Words   |  4 Pagesneurodegenerative brain disorder, Parkinson’s disease affects the neurons in the human brain. This disease affects everyone differently. However, there are common symptoms that all patients with Parkinson’s experience. At this time, there is no cure for the disease, but there are several ways to improve the quality of life. Although research is never complete, there is a lot of information on Parkinson’s disease that individuals should know. Parkinson’s disease affects the brain of the individualRead MoreEffects Of Alzheimer s Disease On The Brain1133 Words   |  5 PagesLast year my maternal Aunt Kate passed away. She had been diagnosed with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) about eight years earlier. My maternal grandmother also had been diagnosed with dementia before her death. Later this month I will accompany my 77-year-old mother to her neurologist appointment. While she has not been diagnosed with AD or dementia, she has been prescribed Donepezil (Aricept), one of the newer drugs that are thought to reduce the decline in memory in patients that have or might be

Surrogate Motherhood Essay - 2531 Words

Surrogate motherhood refers to that condition of a fertile (footnote) woman who has been contracted to become impregnated via reproductive technologies such as donor or artificial insemination. It is that condition wherein that fertile woman also has agreed to transfer her rights on the child to the biological parents after giving birth. This is bounded by a contract that was signed by the contracting parents and the surrogate. The reasons for this generally fall into two categories. Either the contracting couple is unable to produce a child or they would prefer to eliminate or enhance certain genetic traits. My argument would apply to either case. For the purpose of this paper, the motivations are irrelevant and the logic following†¦show more content†¦It is also said that with this type of surrogacy, the intended mother enters into a step parent type of adoption (Canadian Surrogacy Options, Inc). Lastly, egg donation, would refer to the condition or process of maintaining a database for potential egg donors (Canadian Surrogacy Options, Inc.) For the purposes of this discussion, each of these engages in the commidification of the reproductive agency and human reproduction by legally and socially justifying a condition in which this capacity may become fungible. (FOOT NOTE) Mother’s egg, father’s sperm – this type of surrogacy is usually employed in cases wherein the mother is not capable of carrying a fertilized egg for medical reasons. Donor egg, father’s sperm – a type of surrogacy that is employed when there is doubt on the quality of the egg or there are no available ovaries for fertilization. Mother’s egg, donor sperm – this is the opposite of donor egg, father’s sperm. This is actually taken into consideration when there is doubt in the quality of the father’s sperm. Donor egg, donor sperm – is the type of surrogacy chosen by intended parents who would want to establish a genetic link with the child. Surrogate motherhood became popular in the 1980’s. This was popularized by the case of Baby M, which primarily dealt on the ethical issues raised regarding reproductiveShow MoreRelatedSurrogate Motherhood940 Words   |  4 Pagessurrogacy, or traditional surrogacy, the surrogate mother is impregnated with the sperm of the intended father by way of artificial insemination. In these cases, the surrogate mother not only carries the child but is genetically linked to the child as well. She however relinquishes her role of social mother to the intended mother. In host surrogacy the intended parents produce an embryo through in vitro fertilization, which is then transplanted into the surrogate mother who develops and gives birthRead More Surrogate Motherhood Essay851 Words   |  4 Pages Surrogate Motherhood: Good or Bad? nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;There are many controversies surrounding the idea of surrogate motherhood, by its definition, it is a course of action that goes outside natural reproduction. Although surrogacy was first brought up in the bible it is only until recently that it has actually become an issue for criticism and debate. Factors such as the growth of infertility in modern society, coupled with the declining number of children available for adoption,Read MoreEssay on Surrogate Motherhood912 Words   |  4 PagesSurrogate Motherhood is something that not many people actually support, even though it â€Å"is one of the many reproductive techniques that have enabled infertile couples to have children† (qtd. in Freedman). There are two types of surrogacy, traditional and gestational. The traditional type of surrogacy involves the surrogate mother being (AI) artificially inseminated with the sperm of the intended father or sperm from a donor when the sperm count is low. In either case the surrogate’s own egg willRead MoreEssay on Surrogate Motherhood and Technology3216 Words   |  13 PagesSurrogate Motherhood and Technology Surrogacy: The Technology Reproductive technologies have a lot to do with the theology of the family. One aspect of reproductive technology deals with the issue of pregnancy for profit. This concept is known as surrogacy, and it is used for procreation. Ten to fifteen percent of married couples are unable to have children of their own.1 A surrogate mother is a woman who carries the child, usually for an infertile couple. Surrogacy has been aroundRead MoreShould Surrogate Motherhood Be Allowed?1019 Words   |  5 PagesSurrogate Motherhood is when one women carries to term the fertilized egg of another woman. This procedure is chosen by married couples who can not conceive a child in the natural way. In some occasions the mother may be able to produce an egg, but has no womb or some other physical problem which prevents her from carrying a child. Whether or not the husband can produce a large amount of sperm is not a problem. Once the egg and sperm are combined in a petri dish fertilization is very likelyRead MoreThe Legal Status Of Surrogate Motherhood1275 Words   |  6 PagesVassilenko Berkeley College â€Æ' The Legal Status of Surrogate Motherhood in Russia and USA Russia is one of the few lucky countries where surrogacy is allowed by law. Legal aspects of surrogate motherhood are governed by the Family Code, the Fundamentals of Legislation on health care. Implementation of the medical component of the surrogate motherhood is governed by Order 67 of the Ministry of Health. Countries where legally allowed surrogate motherhood and reproductive, including commercial: US (inRead More Should Surrogate Motherhood be Allowed? Essay981 Words   |  4 Pages Surrogate Motherhood is when one women carries to term the fertilized egg of another woman. This procedure is chosen by married couples who can not conceive a child in the â€Å"natural way†. In some occasions the mother may be able to produce an egg, but has no womb or some other physical problem which prevents her from carrying a child. Whether or not the husband can produce a large amount of sperm is not a problem. Once the egg and sperm are combined in a petri dish fertilization is very likelyRead MoreThe Womb : A Marxist Analysis Of Surrogate Motherhood2124 Words   |  9 PagesCommodification of the Womb: A Marxist Analysis of Surrogate Motherhood In the context of classical Marxism, the moral permissibility of surrogate motherhood is forcefully negated. Marxism condemns the practice of surrogacy as an exemplification of commodity fetishism in capitalist society, viewing surrogacy arrangements as a commercialization of the female womb. The term, â€Å"commodification of the womb,† thus arises to describe the process by which services carried out by the female womb are soldRead MoreSurrogate Motherhood Is Considered The Most Controversial Form Of Medically Assisted Conception Essay1387 Words   |  6 PagesSurrogate motherhood is considered the most controversial form of medically assisted conception. Surrogacy is defined as an arrangement by which a woman gives birth to a baby on behalf of a woman who is incapable of conceiving babies herself or is infertile. The issue of surrogacy has been running for almost three decades. Elizabeth Cane was the first woman in the United States to legally become a surrogate mother in 1980 (Chittom and Wagner). Surrogate births are illegal in many countries, includingRead More surrogate mothers Essay1148 Words   |  5 Pages A Surrogate Mother is defined as â€Å"an adult woman who enters into an agreement to bear a child conceived through assisted conception for intended parents.† The couple is usually referred to as intended parents who enter into an agreement providing that they will be the parents of a child born to a surrogate through assisted conception, using an egg or sperm of at least one parent. 1 RIGHT - Surrogate motherhood is a right entitled to those who are ready and able to take on the responsibility of

A Thousand Splendid Suns Analysis Free Essays

Create questions you would ask the author and at least one of the people in the book. Include why you would ask each particular question, and connect the question to a specific event (quote with page #) in the book. If I were to ask questions to the author and characters, they would be about their experiences. We will write a custom essay sample on A Thousand Splendid Suns: Analysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now The one question I would ask Khaled Hosseini is, All the characters in this book were granted poetic justice, but why not Mariam? Mariam did nothing monstrous to deserve execution; her act of killing Rasheed was done in self-defense and the defense of Laila. Nonetheless, she suffered the shame and punishment from the government under which she lived in. â€Å"Like a compass needle that points north, a man’s accusing finger always finds a woman. Always. You remember that, Mariam. †pg. 364 Even though Mariam’s execution was injustice in my eyes I believe that for Mariam her death sentence was an legitimate end to her life which had legitimate beginnings. Before her death sentence, she recites lines from the Koran asking for mercy and forgiveness which portrays her humbleness and her dedication to loved ones in her life. I would like to ask Mariam why she refused to call witnesses at her trial. Why did she not try to escape with Tariq and Laila? Calling witnesses to her trial could have proved to be beneficial to Mariam; she might not have been sentenced to death but she didn’t even try. â€Å"Remembering the last time she’d signed her name to a document, twenty- seven years before, at Jalil’s table, beneath the watchful gaze of another mullah. pg. 364 There was still a little hope left her, her dreams were to see Laila and Tariq happy and to watch Aziza and Zalmai grow but just like that she gave it all up. Her life had not ended but she still acted as if there was nothing that could be done; she herself gave up her hopes which contrasted her character at the beginning of the book. Lastly, I would like to ask Kh aled why was Laila not given a chance to attend university and complete her secondary education? It is obvious in the early stages of the book that her dream is be educated and educate others so that she can play a women’s worthy role in their society. Her young self is contradicting to what her character becomes. I wonder why after building her family and living in peace she didn’t have the desire to attend university. She had a good opportunity and I feel it would have benefited her and her family a lot. One question I would ask Laila is why she wanted to move back to Kabul? Wasn’t she done with all the suffering and painful memories she endured there? â€Å"†¦Where do we go from here, Tariq? How long do we stay here? This isn’t home. Kabul is†¦Ã¢â‚¬ pg. 390 I realize it was her homeland, she grew up there and the Kabul they left during the war was now half restored; though why would she risk the lives of her family members and their freedom they obtained in Murree. â€Å"It’s a good life, Laila tells herself, a life to be thankful for. It is, in fact, precisely the sort of life she used to dream for herself in her darkest days with Rasheed. † How to cite A Thousand Splendid Suns: Analysis, Papers

Changes in Synapses That Happen During Classical Conditioning free essay sample

The first scientific study of animal learning demonstrated a form of associative learning classical conditioning; it can be described as a process of learning where a neutral stimulus (e. g. bell) is paired with an unconditional stimulus (e. g. food) and as a consequence, the neutral stimulus becomes conditioned and comes to elicit the same response (e. g. salivation) as the unconditional stimulus even when presented alone (Murphy Naish, 2006). It has been proposed that â€Å"†¦classical conditioning†¦is quite easy to explain on the basis of simple changes in synapses. † In order to assess the merit of this claim, it is necessary to describe the simple changes that occur in synapses during classical conditioning. All forms of learning require some synaptic change, however it isn’t clear whether these can always be explained by the same kind of synaptic changes that happen in classical conditioning (Murphy Naish, 2006). Some forms of learning will be explored in terms of synaptic changes. At a neurobiological level, learning is â€Å"created† by the interconnectedness between neurons (synapses). Hebb proposed that if the postsynaptic neuron fired while the presynaptic terminal was releasing neurotransmitter (NT), the presynaptic neuron would be more likely to influence the postsynaptic neuron on subsequent occasions, i. e. when previously unassociated neurons fire simultaneously on repeated occasions, new links are formed which increase synaptic efficiency (Hebbian learning). Hebbian learning explains Pavlov’s associative learning classical conditioning. Pavlov carried out experiments with dogs and noted their salivation reflex in response to food presentation (unconditioned response), later he repeatedly paired the presentation of food (unconditioned stimulus) with the ringing of a bell (neutral stimulus) and finally he sounded the bell (conditional stimulus) without presenting the food and that alone triggered salivation (conditioned response) (Murphy Naish, 2006). Repeated activity in two neurons simultaneously (e. g. bell, food) strengthens the synapses and eventually activity in one of the two neurons alone will produce activity in the other because new effective links are formed by the repeated and simultaneous firing, creating an auto-associated pattern (bell and food repeatedly presented together lead to a conditioned learning response). The conditioning of an eye-blink to a buzzer is another example that can be supported by Hebb’s proposal of changes in synaptic efficacy. Activation of the neutral (presynaptic) neuron that fires to the sound of a buzzer at the same time that a puff of air occurs (unconditioned neuron) causes an eye-blinking response (blinking neuron). At first, the connection between the neutral neuron and the postsynaptic neuron is very weak, so the release of NT by the neutral neuron is unlikely to trigger firing in the postsynaptic neuron. However, the unconditioned (presynaptic) neuron has an efficient synapse with the postsynaptic neuron i. e. this presynaptic neuron causes the postsynaptic neuron to fire thus producing a blinking response. If both presynaptic neurons are repeatedly activated at the same time that the air-puff occurs, an excitatory postsynaptic potential is elicited in the blinking neuron and the previously weak synapse will become stronger to the point that, this synapse alone can trigger firing in the postsynaptic neuron that responds to the air-puff and causes eye-blinking (Murphy Naish, 2006). Classical conditioning was originally interpreted as an automatic response linking a new stimulus to an existing reflex behaviour (S-R sequence). However, further research into conditioning found the process to be more complex, Pavlov realized that his dogs came running to be fed when they heard the bell. But, running isn’t an automatic reflex; this could perhaps be seen as instrumental conditioning, which happens when behaviour is rewarded. This kind of learning appears more complex than classical conditioning, as previously interpreted, as the animal has to acquire what appears like a declarative memory (a memory of â€Å"knowing what†). Thus, this process of learning is likely to involve a more complex system of adjusting Hebbian synaptic efficiency. Instrumental conditioning is often used when teaching new tricks to a dog, e. g. teaching a dog to â€Å"shake hands†; upon hearing the command the dog sits down and raises a front paw, then the dog receives a reward (Murphy Naish, 2006). Applying Hebbian learning to this example isn’t straightforward, however as the time between triggering the behaviour and receiving the reward has to be almost instantaneous, or the dog won’t learn the trick, this can be linked to Hebbian learning both neurons (human voice and reward) have to be simultaneously activated for the behaviour to take place, i. . synaptic strength will increase only if both pre- and postsynaptic neurons are simultaneously activated (Murphy Naish, 2006). Perhaps â€Å"reward† neurons fire while there is activity in the neurons that direct the behaviour. The dog may anticipate the reward which leads to the â€Å"shaking-hands† behaviour and is likely to strengthen associated synapses. T he theory that learning can induce changes in neural networks is supported by recordings from the sea slug aplysia while the animal is learning (Murphy Naish, 2006). Aplysia is perhaps the most simple example of biological changes at synapses resulting in encoding environmental events and thus learning. This animal is able of non-associative learning brought about by changes in synaptic connections between sensory and motor neurons. If a mild stimulation is applied to the siphon, it withdraws its gill, however repeated mild stimulation decreases its reponse, i. e. habituation occurs, due to a reduction in the number of synaptic connections which leads to a decrease in synaptic efficiency. But, if an intense stimulus is applied to the tail or head this results in withdrawal of the gill, i. . sensitization occurs, due to an increase in the number of synaptic connections, leading to increased synaptic efficiency (Murphy Naish, 2006). The different examples of learning presented can to some extent be supported by Hebb’s proposal of changes in synaptic efficiency. Since synaptic changes are all we have available as a physical basis of learning they could perhaps be further explored as the physical basis of all forms of learning. Word count: 984 References Murphy, K. , Naish, P. (2006). Learning and Memory, Learning and Language, 2nd ed. , pp. 1-29, 42-48, The Open University, Milton Keynes. QUESTION 2 a. i. For dopamine (DA) to â€Å"skyrocket†, it means that high levels of it were released by the dopaminergic system and as this substance plays a role in the appetitive phase of feeding motivation, will likely motivate the person to obtain food in order to bring their body nutrients back to optimal level (homeostasis). The increase in DA levels is caused by the activation of the mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway which increases its neural activity. a. ii. A PET scan procedure with a participant who is a cheeseburger eater (non-meat eaters might not experience a DA rise). The participant should fast for 8-12 hours (to make sure he/she feels hungry). A radioactively-labelled marker is injected intravenously into the participant and his/her brain is scanned before waving a hot cheeseburger in front of his/her nose/mouth and scanned again while this is happening. Brain scans will compare DA levels â€Å"before† and â€Å"during† the food stimulation. The comparison will look both at brain regions/neurons affected and activity levels. As the marker competes with the brain’s released DA to bind to receptors, the scans will provide an inverse measure of the brain’s DA levels, i. . an increase in DA will show a low signal from the marker and vice-versa. Word count: 200 b. i. This could happen either because of genetic reasons i. e. the person was born with fewer dopamine D2 receptors or because the repeated use of certain substances/drugs has led to a decrease in D2 receptors. It is also possible that the combination of genetic fa ctors and drug use contribute to a decrease in D2 receptors. b. ii. The best kind of evidence would be brain imaging (e. g. PET scans) of addicts; ideally from before and during the addiction. In order to compare the same individual(s) levels of D2 receptors so as to decide whether D2 receptors decreased with drug use or were originally low. Brain imaging of close relatives or genetic studies would also be useful in deciding if fewer D2 receptors were inherited. b. iii. The notion of â€Å"desensitization† in the extract indicates that the repeated use of addictive drugs decreases the amount of dopamine D2 receptors causing the dopaminergic system to become less sensitive to DA, thus leading the addict to seek greater amounts of the drug. This concept contrasts with â€Å"incentive sensitization†, i. e. the repeated exposure of the NS to addictive drugs leads to increase in dendritic spines which â€Å"pulls† the addict towards drug-related incentives e. g. syringes, locations associated with drug-taking. Word count: 199 c. i. In terms of incentives what might be involved is: pleasure, cues paired with food e. g. smell, sight of food, location. A spike in dopamine levels caused by presentation of a conditional stimulus e. g. tress, pain, watching TV etc, if the person tends to eat when these occur. c. ii. The â€Å"much more† and hunger interact as external and internal factors in the feeding motivation. The internal factors reflect an internal deficit of energy (e. g. nutrients, glucose levels), the external factors are related to things like, sight or smell of food, changing in available diet. c. iii. The functional significance is to pull the person to seek food and restore homeostatic balance, thus lowering the body’s perceived risk to physical integrity. Word count: 100 d. Schizophrenia is associated with abnormalities in the anatomy of the brain and the network connections within it (made of small building blocks called neurons), thus producing abnormal levels of certain brain chemicals. From this point of view it might be considered a brain disorder, however the abnormality or dysfunction that occurs in the brain leads to particular patterns of thinking and feeling which cause abnormal psychological experiences. This second aspect may point to a classification of schizophrenia as a mind disorder. From a biological psychology perspective brain structure/activity and thoughts/feelings constitute different aspects of a highly complex phenomenon where a dysfunctional brain affects an individual’s psychological experience. While major symptoms like: hallucinations, delusions, thought disorder, affective flattening and social withdrawal tend to be the focus of attention and may seem like the confirmation of a mind disorder, there are subtle and ongoing cognitive difficulties which tend to be ignored: problems with coordination, attention, concentration and willed action. Evidence shows: lower IQ levels, abnormal patterns of eye movement when following a target, unusual EEGs. PET and MRI scans provide detailed evidence of deep measurable brain abnormalities at the level of: structure, cells and chemicals which affect brain functioning in schizophrenics. Word count: 199W